Anarchy 43/Reflections on parents, teachers and schools - Revision history

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imported>Ivanhoe at 23:23, 13 March 2018

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imported>Ivanhoe at 03:28, 22 February 2018

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 <font size="2"><blockquote>{{tab}}If chil&shy;dren are brought up in com&shy;mon in the bosom of equal&shy;ity; if they are im&shy;bued with the laws of the State and the pre&shy;cepts of the General Will &hellip; we can&shy;not doubt that they will cher&shy;ish one another mu&shy;tually as broth&shy;ers &hellip; to become in time de&shy;fenders and fath&shy;ers of the country of which they will have been so long the chil&shy;dren.</blockquote></font>
-{{p|278}}{{tab}}William Godwin, who, in his ''{{l|En&shy;quirer|http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/godwin/enquirer.html|Full text at Anarchy Archives}}'' at&shy;tacks the con&shy;cealed au&shy;thor&shy;it&shy;ar&shy;ian&shy;ism of Rousseau{{s}} edu&shy;ca&shy;tional theor&shy;ies, criti&shy;cises in his ''{{l|En&shy;quiry Con&shy;cern&shy;ing Polit&shy;ical Justice|http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/godwin/PJfrontpiece.html|Full Text at Anarchy Archives}}'' (1793)<!-- '(1792)' in original -->, the idea of na&shy;tional edu&shy;ca&shy;tion. He sum&shy;mar&shy;ises the argu&shy;ments in favour, which are those of Rousseau, adding to them the ques&shy;tion:
+{{p|278}}{{tab}}William Godwin, who, in his ''{{l|En&shy;quirer|http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/godwin/enquirer.html|Full text at Anarchy Archives}}'' at&shy;tacks the con&shy;cealed au&shy;thor&shy;it&shy;ar&shy;ian&shy;ism of Rousseau{{s}} edu&shy;ca&shy;tional theor&shy;ies, criti&shy;cises in his ''{{l|En&shy;quiry Con&shy;cern&shy;ing Polit&shy;ical Justice|http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/godwin/PJfrontpiece.html|Full text at Anarchy Archives}}'' (1793)<!-- '(1792)' in original -->, the idea of na&shy;tional edu&shy;ca&shy;tion. He sum&shy;mar&shy;ises the argu&shy;ments in favour, which are those of Rousseau, adding to them the ques&shy;tion:
 <font size="2"><blockquote>{{tab}}If the edu&shy;ca&shy;tion of our youth be en&shy;tirely con&shy;fined to the pru&shy;dence of their parents, or the ac&shy;cid&shy;ental be&shy;ne&shy;vol&shy;ence of private in&shy;di&shy;viduals, will it not be a neces&shy;sary con&shy;se&shy;quence, that some will be edu&shy;cated to virtue, others to vice, and others again en&shy;tirely neg&shy;lected?</blockquote></font>

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 {{tab}}The anarch&shy;ist, seek&shy;ing func&shy;tional, as op&shy;posed to polit&shy;ical, answers to so&shy;cial needs, and con&shy;trast&shy;ing the so&shy;cial prin&shy;ciple with the polit&shy;ical prin&shy;ciple, sees in the state{{s}} con&shy;trol of edu&shy;ca&shy;tion a usurp&shy;a&shy;tion of a so&shy;cial func&shy;tion. (His&shy;tor&shy;ic&shy;ally of course, the Edu&shy;ca&shy;tion Act of 1870 didn{{t}} {{qq|usurp}} any&shy;body{{s}} func&shy;tion, but if you ac&shy;cept the con&shy;cep&shy;tion of an in&shy;verse rela&shy;tion&shy;ship between the state and so&shy;ciety{{dash|the strength of one re&shy;sult&shy;ing from the weak&shy;ness of the other}}you can see how the so&shy;cial organ&shy;isa&shy;tion of popular edu&shy;ca&shy;tion was, so to speak, at&shy;rophied in ad&shy;vance, by its polit&shy;ical organ&shy;isa&shy;tion. That this has not been the dis&shy;aster{{dash|though some would say it has}}that anarch&shy;ist think&shy;ers like {{p|280}}Godwin pre&shy;dic&shy;ted, has been due to the local dif&shy;fu&shy;sion of con&shy;trol, the di&shy;ver&shy;gent aims of teach&shy;ers and the re&shy;sili&shy;ence of chil&shy;dren).
-{{tab}}Func&shy;tion&shy;ally, the ad&shy;min&shy;istra&shy;tion of the school is the con&shy;cern of parents and teach&shy;ers, and if we really seek a so&shy;ciety of auto&shy;nom&shy;ous free as&shy;so&shy;ci&shy;a&shy;tions we must see such bodies as {{w|parent-<wbr>teacher as&shy;so&shy;ci&shy;a&shy;tions|Parent-Teacher_Association}} as the kind of organ&shy;isa&shy;tion whose even&shy;tual and {{qq|natural}} func&shy;tion is to take over the schools from the {{w|Ministry|Ministry_of_Education_(United_Kingdom)}}, the {{w|County Coun&shy;cils|County_council#United_Kingdom}}, the Dir&shy;ect&shy;ors, In&shy;spect&shy;ors, Managers and Gov&shy;ern&shy;ors who, in a so&shy;ciety domi&shy;nated by the polit&shy;ical prin&shy;ciple are in&shy;evit&shy;ably their con&shy;trol&shy;lers. I don{{t}} know whether schools so ad&shy;min&shy;istered would be any better or any wrose than they are at present, but I do believe that a {{qq|self-<wbr>regula&shy;ting}} so&shy;ciety would run its schools that way. Among in&shy;de&shy;pend&shy;ent schools in this country which ex&shy;em&shy;plify this kind of organ&shy;isa&shy;tion, there used to be [[Anarchy 43/Progressive experience|Burgess Hill School]] (de&shy;scribed by one of the [[Author:Olive Markham|parents]] in this issue of {{sc|anarchy}}) which was owned by a Friendly So&shy;ciety of parents and teach&shy;ers and there still is {{w|King Alfred School|King_Alfred_School,_London}}, governed by a so&shy;ciety of people in&shy;ter&shy;ested in modern edu&shy;ca&shy;tional methods and {{qq|ad&shy;min&shy;istered by an ad&shy;vis&shy;ory coun&shy;cil of pupils and staff}}. I have not heard of any parent-<wbr>teacher as&shy;so&shy;ci&shy;a&shy;tions in the ordin&shy;ary school system which aspire to such func&shy;tions, though with the de&shy;velop&shy;ment of a vari&shy;ety of organ&shy;isa&shy;tions in the last few years con&shy;cerned with in&shy;ter&shy;est&shy;ing parents in edu&shy;ca&shy;tion, one can imagine the mem&shy;bers re&shy;flect&shy;ing after a time on whether their own in&shy;tense {{qq|par&shy;ti&shy;cip&shy;a&shy;tion}} had not rendered the usual com&shy;plic&shy;ated and ex&shy;pens&shy;ive bureau&shy;cracy of school ad&shy;min&shy;istra&shy;tion super&shy;flu&shy;ous.
+{{tab}}Func&shy;tion&shy;ally, the ad&shy;min&shy;istra&shy;tion of the school is the con&shy;cern of parents and teach&shy;ers, and if we really seek a so&shy;ciety of auto&shy;nom&shy;ous free as&shy;so&shy;ci&shy;a&shy;tions we must see such bodies as {{w|parent-teacher as&shy;so&shy;ci&shy;a&shy;tions|Parent-Teacher_Association}} as the kind of organ&shy;isa&shy;tion whose even&shy;tual and {{qq|natural}} func&shy;tion is to take over the schools from the {{w|Ministry|Ministry_of_Education_(United_Kingdom)}}, the {{w|County Coun&shy;cils|County_council#United_Kingdom}}, the Dir&shy;ect&shy;ors, In&shy;spect&shy;ors, Managers and Gov&shy;ern&shy;ors who, in a so&shy;ciety domi&shy;nated by the polit&shy;ical prin&shy;ciple are in&shy;evit&shy;ably their con&shy;trol&shy;lers. I don{{t}} know whether schools so ad&shy;min&shy;istered would be any better or any wrose than they are at present, but I do believe that a {{qq|self-<wbr>regula&shy;ting}} so&shy;ciety would run its schools that way. Among in&shy;de&shy;pend&shy;ent schools in this country which ex&shy;em&shy;plify this kind of organ&shy;isa&shy;tion, there used to be [[Anarchy 43/Progressive experience|Burgess Hill School]] (de&shy;scribed by one of the [[Author:Olive Markham|parents]] in this issue of {{sc|anarchy}}) which was owned by a Friendly So&shy;ciety of parents and teach&shy;ers and there still is {{w|King Alfred School|King_Alfred_School,_London}}, governed by a so&shy;ciety of people in&shy;ter&shy;ested in modern edu&shy;ca&shy;tional methods and {{qq|ad&shy;min&shy;istered by an ad&shy;vis&shy;ory coun&shy;cil of pupils and staff}}. I have not heard of any parent-<wbr>teacher as&shy;so&shy;ci&shy;a&shy;tions in the ordin&shy;ary school system which aspire to such func&shy;tions, though with the de&shy;velop&shy;ment of a vari&shy;ety of organ&shy;isa&shy;tions in the last few years con&shy;cerned with in&shy;ter&shy;est&shy;ing parents in edu&shy;ca&shy;tion, one can imagine the mem&shy;bers re&shy;flect&shy;ing after a time on whether their own in&shy;tense {{qq|par&shy;ti&shy;cip&shy;a&shy;tion}} had not rendered the usual com&shy;plic&shy;ated and ex&shy;pens&shy;ive bureau&shy;cracy of school ad&shy;min&shy;istra&shy;tion super&shy;flu&shy;ous.
 {{tab}}The men&shy;tion of parent-<wbr>teacher as&shy;so&shy;ci&shy;a&shy;tions{{dash|in theory an epitome of the kind of so&shy;cial organ&shy;isa&shy;tion which anarch&shy;ists en&shy;vis&shy;age}}re&shy;minds us of their greater de&shy;velop&shy;ment in America, and the fact that this has not had ex&shy;actly the re&shy;sults that we as anarch&shy;ists would find de&shy;sir&shy;able. In his book ''On Being Human'', writing about the school as {{qq|a most im&shy;port&shy;ant agency in the teach&shy;ing of the art and sci&shy;ence of human rela&shy;tions}}, the an&shy;thro&shy;po&shy;lo&shy;gist and bio&shy;lo&shy;gist {{w|Ashley Montagu|Ashley_Montagu}} de&shy;clares:

@@ Line 77: / Line 77: @@
 {{tab}}But the kind of thing that hap&shy;pens when this point of view filters into the school system is dis&shy;cussed by {{w|David Riesman|David_Riesman}} in his {{qq|Thoughts on Teach&shy;ers and Schools}}. The teach&shy;ing func&shy;tion, he ob&shy;serves, {{qq|has been ex&shy;tended to in&shy;clude train&shy;ing in group co-<wbr>opera&shy;tion, manners, the arts, and self-<wbr>under&shy;stand&shy;ing, as well as large residues of the tradi&shy;tional cur&shy;ricu&shy;lum}}. For Human Rela&shy;tions has in fact already become a class&shy;room sub&shy;ject, but some&shy;how not in Montagu{{s}} sense. {{qq|The school is im&shy;plica&shy;ted and em&shy;broiled}}, says Riesman, {{qq|in the changing forms {{p|281}}of America{{s}} pre&shy;oc&shy;cu&shy;pa&shy;tion with suc&shy;cess{{dash}}the patina of suc&shy;cess now being de&shy;fined by such terms as {{q|group co-<wbr>opera&shy;tion}}, {{q|self-<wbr>under&shy;stand&shy;ing}}, {{q|per&shy;sonal ad&shy;just&shy;ment}} and {{q|get&shy;ting along with people}}.}}<!-- end quotation omitted in original; all inner quotations double in original --> The pro&shy;gres&shy;sive edu&shy;ca&shy;tion move&shy;ment, spread&shy;ing in a dis&shy;torted fashion through the state school systems, has, he feels, dove&shy;tailed with the {{qq|mind&shy;less prag&shy;mat&shy;ism and voca&shy;tion&shy;al&shy;ism}} which the schools ab&shy;sorb from their so&shy;cial sur&shy;round&shy;ings, from parents, super&shy;vis&shy;ors, tax&shy;payers and the vari&shy;ety of pres&shy;sure groups, great and small which sur&shy;round the American school boards. Mean&shy;while the teach&shy;ers lead lives of harried des&shy;per&shy;a&shy;tion fight&shy;ing a {{qq|losing battle in de&shy;fence of the tradi&shy;tional intel&shy;lec&shy;tual values}}. And he evolves, on the ana&shy;logy of {{w|Keynes&shy;ian eco&shy;nomics|Keynesian_economics}} a ''counter-<wbr>cyc&shy;lical'' theory of edu&shy;ca&shy;tion. Just as {{w|Keynes|John_Maynard_Keynes}} re&shy;com&shy;mended spend&shy;ing in times of {{w|de&shy;pres&shy;sion|Depression_(economics)}}, so Riesman re&shy;com&shy;mends that {{qq|teach&shy;ers, in se&shy;lect&shy;ing among the ex&shy;pecta&shy;tions held out to them, have some modest op&shy;por&shy;tun&shy;ities to op&shy;pose life in its moment&shy;ary ex&shy;cesses}}. He wants {{qq|to en&shy;courage some of them to give up trying to be psy&shy;chi&shy;at&shy;rists, mothers<!-- 'mothersm' in original --> and moral&shy;ists, to give up making cit&shy;izens, demo&shy;crats, and toler&shy;ant chil&shy;dren. Could they not be per&shy;suaded to con&shy;cen&shy;trate more than many now feel justi&shy;fied in doing, on their roles as teach&shy;ers of spe&shy;cific sub&shy;jects? This is, after all, a job no one else is as&shy;signed or trained to do.}}
-{{tab}}Montagu writes that {{qq|A so&shy;ciety such as ours, in which human rela&shy;tions are sub&shy;merged in the eco&shy;nomic system, can rescue itself only by sub&shy;merging its eco&shy;nomy in the matrix of human rela&shy;tions &hellip; And this is the task tat the schools must assist in under&shy;taking, no less that the rescue of man from his de&shy;basing en&shy;slave&shy;ment to the prin&shy;ciples and prac&shy;tices of an aquis&shy;it&shy;ive so&shy;ciety}}. But how does the at&shy;tempt work out? We may gain a clue from the book {{popup|''Crestwood Heights'': ''A North American Suburb''|University of Toronto Press (1956)}} by {{popup|Seeley|John R. Seeley}}, {{popup|Sim|R. Alexander Sim}} and {{popup|Loosley|Elizabeth W. Loosley}}. {{w|Crest&shy;wood Heights|Forest_Hill,_Toronto}}<!-- "Crestwood Heights" is pseudonymous and refers to Toronto's Forest Hill, according to Allan Levine in Toronto: Biography of a City (2014). --> is built around its modern, well-<wbr>equipped and en&shy;light&shy;ened schools. It is par&shy;ticu&shy;larly {{qq|child-<wbr>ori&shy;ented}} and the Crest&shy;wood Heights parents {{qq|ap&shy;pear to have ac&shy;cepted nearly all the values which the human&shy;ists, the liber&shy;als, and the psy&shy;chi&shy;atric&shy;ally ori&shy;ented speak&shy;ers and writers have ad&shy;voc&shy;ated over the last fifty years.}} All the right ad&shy;ject&shy;ives are used. {{qq|In the city}}, writes William J. Newman, {{qq|com&shy;peti&shy;tion is open, ac&shy;know&shy;ledged, and brutal; in the suburb toler&shy;a&shy;tion, per&shy;mis&shy;sive&shy;ness, and in&shy;di&shy;vidual choice are the rule. The child is brought up as an auto&shy;no&shy;mous spon&shy;tan&shy;eous in&shy;di&shy;vidual: thus the open glass school. The suburb will pro&shy;vide the arena in which the family and espe&shy;cially the chil&shy;dren can emerge as {{q|free}} and {{q|re&shy;spons&shy;ible}}, ready to take their place in the world.}} But the well-<wbr>meaning parents of Crest&shy;wood Heights are pur&shy;su&shy;ing for their chil&shy;dren two contra&shy;dict&shy;ory goals, {{qq|suc&shy;cess}} and {{qq|psy&shy;cho&shy;logical matur&shy;ity}}. The authors ob&shy;serve that:
+{{tab}}Montagu writes that {{qq|A so&shy;ciety such as ours, in which human rela&shy;tions are sub&shy;merged in the eco&shy;nomic system, can rescue itself only by sub&shy;merging its eco&shy;nomy in the matrix of human rela&shy;tions &hellip; And this is the task that the schools must assist in under&shy;taking, no less that the rescue of man from his de&shy;basing en&shy;slave&shy;ment to the prin&shy;ciples and prac&shy;tices of an aquis&shy;it&shy;ive so&shy;ciety}}. But how does the at&shy;tempt work out? We may gain a clue from the book {{popup|''Crestwood Heights'': ''A North American Suburb''|University of Toronto Press (1956)}} by {{popup|Seeley|John R. Seeley}}, {{popup|Sim|R. Alexander Sim}} and {{popup|Loosley|Elizabeth W. Loosley}}. {{w|Crest&shy;wood Heights|Forest_Hill,_Toronto}}<!-- "Crestwood Heights" is pseudonymous and refers to Toronto's Forest Hill, according to Allan Levine in Toronto: Biography of a City (2014). --> is built around its modern, well-<wbr>equipped and en&shy;light&shy;ened schools. It is par&shy;ticu&shy;larly {{qq|child-<wbr>ori&shy;ented}} and the Crest&shy;wood Heights parents {{qq|ap&shy;pear to have ac&shy;cepted nearly all the values which the human&shy;ists, the liber&shy;als, and the psy&shy;chi&shy;atric&shy;ally ori&shy;ented speak&shy;ers and writers have ad&shy;voc&shy;ated over the last fifty years.}} All the right ad&shy;ject&shy;ives are used. {{qq|In the city}}, writes William J. Newman, {{qq|com&shy;peti&shy;tion is open, ac&shy;know&shy;ledged, and brutal; in the suburb toler&shy;a&shy;tion, per&shy;mis&shy;sive&shy;ness, and in&shy;di&shy;vidual choice are the rule. The child is brought up as an auto&shy;no&shy;mous spon&shy;tan&shy;eous in&shy;di&shy;vidual: thus the open glass school. The suburb will pro&shy;vide the arena in which the family and espe&shy;cially the chil&shy;dren can emerge as {{q|free}} and {{q|re&shy;spons&shy;ible}}, ready to take their place in the world.}} But the well-<wbr>meaning parents of Crest&shy;wood Heights are pur&shy;su&shy;ing for their chil&shy;dren two contra&shy;dict&shy;ory goals, {{qq|suc&shy;cess}} and {{qq|psy&shy;cho&shy;logical matur&shy;ity}}. The authors ob&shy;serve that:
 <font size="2"><blockquote>{{tab}}The child must be free in ac&shy;cord&shy;ance with demo&shy;cratic ideo&shy;logy; but he must, by no means, become free to the point of re&shy;noun&shy;cing either the ma&shy;terial suc&shy;cess goals or the en&shy;gin&shy;eered co-<wbr>opera&shy;tion in&shy;tegral to the ad&shy;equate func&shy;tion&shy;ing of an in&shy;dus&shy;trial civil&shy;isa&shy;tion.</blockquote></font>
@@ Line 93: / Line 93: @@
 {{tab}}But David Riesman again, in his book ''In&shy;di&shy;vidu&shy;al&shy;ism Re&shy;con&shy;sidered'' makes this ob&shy;serva&shy;tion on the chil&shy;dren of Crest&shy;wood Heights:
-<font size="2"><blockquote>{{tab}}Their parents want to know how they have fared at school: they are con&shy;stantly com&shy;par&shy;ing them, judging them in school apti&shy;tude, popu&shy;lar&shy;ity, what part they have in the school play; are the boys sissies? the girls too fat? All the school anxi&shy;et&shy;ies are trans&shy;ferred to the home and ''vice versa'', partly because the parents, col&shy;lege gradu&shy;ates mostly, are intel&shy;ligent and con&shy;cerned with edu&shy;ca&shy;tion. After school there are music les&shy;sons, skating les&shy;sons, riding les&shy;sons, with mother as chauf&shy;feur and sched&shy;uler. In the evening, the chil&shy;dren go to a dance at school for which the parents have groomed them, while the parents go to a Parent-<wbr>Teacher As&shy;so&shy;ci&shy;a&shy;tion meet&shy;ing for which the chil&shy;dren, di&shy;rectly or in&shy;di&shy;rectly, have groomed ''them'', where they are ad&shy;dressed by a psy&shy;chi&shy;atrist who ad&shy;vises them to be warm and re&shy;laxed in handling their chil&shy;dren! They go home and eagerly and warmly ask their re&shy;turn&shy;ing chil&shy;dren to thell them every&shy;thing that hap&shy;pened at the dance, making it clear by their manner that they are soph&shy;ist&shy;ic&shy;ated and can&shy;not be easily shocked. As Pro&shy;fes&shy;sor Seeley de&shy;scribes matters, the school in this com&shy;mun&shy;ity oper&shy;ates a {{qq|gigan&shy;tic fac&shy;tory for the pro&shy;duc&shy;tion of rela&shy;tion&shy;ships}}.</blockquote></font>
+<font size="2"><blockquote>{{tab}}Their parents want to know how they have fared at school: they are con&shy;stantly com&shy;par&shy;ing them, judging them in school apti&shy;tude, popu&shy;lar&shy;ity, what part they have in the school play; are the boys sissies? the girls too fat? All the school anxi&shy;et&shy;ies are trans&shy;ferred to the home and ''vice versa'', partly because the parents, col&shy;lege gradu&shy;ates mostly, are intel&shy;ligent and con&shy;cerned with edu&shy;ca&shy;tion. After school there are music les&shy;sons, skating les&shy;sons, riding les&shy;sons, with mother as chauf&shy;feur and sched&shy;uler. In the evening, the chil&shy;dren go to a dance at school for which the parents have groomed them, while the parents go to a Parent-<wbr>Teacher As&shy;so&shy;ci&shy;a&shy;tion meet&shy;ing for which the chil&shy;dren, di&shy;rectly or in&shy;di&shy;rectly, have groomed ''them'', where they are ad&shy;dressed by a psy&shy;chi&shy;atrist who ad&shy;vises them to be warm and re&shy;laxed in handling their chil&shy;dren! They go home and eagerly and warmly ask their re&shy;turn&shy;ing chil&shy;dren to tell them every&shy;thing that hap&shy;pened at the dance, making it clear by their manner that they are soph&shy;ist&shy;ic&shy;ated and can&shy;not be easily shocked. As Pro&shy;fes&shy;sor Seeley de&shy;scribes matters, the school in this com&shy;mun&shy;ity oper&shy;ates a {{qq|gigan&shy;tic fac&shy;tory for the pro&shy;duc&shy;tion of rela&shy;tion&shy;ships}}.</blockquote></font>
 {{tab}}This really fright&shy;en&shy;ing de&shy;scrip&shy;tion pulls us up with a jerk. Ac&shy;cus&shy;tomed to think of parent-<wbr>teacher co-<wbr>opera&shy;tion as a Good Thing, we seldom con&shy;sider its pos&shy;sibil&shy;it&shy;ies as a tender trap, a well-<wbr>inten&shy;tioned con&shy;spir&shy;acy against the child. For where home and school are two separ&shy;ate worlds a child un&shy;happy at home might find a means of escape in the dif&shy;fer&shy;ent life of a school, and a child who is miser&shy;able at school might find con&shy;sola&shy;tion in the atmo&shy;sphere of home. But if home and school are {{qq|joined and united}}, all avenues of escape are closed. After {{p|283}}all, how many chil&shy;dren of your ac&shy;quaint&shy;ance enjoy dis&shy;cus&shy;sing their school life with their parents or their home life with their teach&shy;ers? Is not the plur&shy;ality of en&shy;viron&shy;ment one of the child{{s}} means of de&shy;fend&shy;ing itself against the paying omni&shy;po&shy;tence of the adult world?

@@ Line 61: / Line 61: @@
 {{p|279}}{{tab}}In practice, in this country today people who want to try an anarch&shy;ist ap&shy;proach to edu&shy;ca&shy;tion have two pos&shy;sible courses of action: to work in the private sector{{dash}}in&shy;de&shy;pend&shy;ent schools of one kind or an&shy;other, a minor&shy;ity of which are pro&shy;gres&shy;sive, or to work in the normal school system and try to in&shy;flu&shy;ence it in a {{qq|pro&shy;gres&shy;sive}} direc&shy;tion. These two courses are by no means mu&shy;tu&shy;ally ex&shy;clus&shy;ive, and there is plenty of evid&shy;ence of the in&shy;flu&shy;ence of the former on the latter.
-{{tab}}It is sur&shy;pris&shy;ing and cer&shy;tainly sad&shy;den&shy;ing, con&shy;sider&shy;ing the number of people in&shy;ter&shy;ested in {{qq|pro&shy;gres&shy;sive}} schools, how few of them there are and how they seldom in&shy;spire other people to start them. For ex&shy;ample, the pub&shy;lica&shy;tion of ''{{w|Summer&shy;hill|Summerhill_(book)}}'' a com&shy;pil&shy;a&shy;tion of the writ&shy;ings of [[Author:A. S. Neill|A. S. Neill]] brought about a great deal of in&shy;ter&shy;est in his school and his ideas in {{w|America|United_States}}; there was an embar&shy;ras&shy;sing pro&shy;ces&shy;sion of over&shy;seas vis&shy;it&shy;ors to Neill{{s}} little school in {{w|Suffolk|Suffolk}}, but how few of the ad&shy;mirers and vis&shy;it&shy;ors set about start&shy;ing more schools on similar lines. A few did: one of the [[Anarchy 43/High School U.S.A.|con&shy;trib&shy;u&shy;tions]] in this issue of {{sc|anarchy}} comes from people who are trying to.
+{{tab}}It is sur&shy;pris&shy;ing, and cer&shy;tainly sad&shy;den&shy;ing, con&shy;sider&shy;ing the number of people in&shy;ter&shy;ested in {{qq|pro&shy;gres&shy;sive}} schools, how few of them there are and how they seldom in&shy;spire other people to start them. For ex&shy;ample, the pub&shy;lica&shy;tion of ''{{w|Summer&shy;hill|Summerhill_(book)}}'' a com&shy;pil&shy;a&shy;tion of the writ&shy;ings of [[Author:A. S. Neill|A. S. Neill]] brought about a great deal of in&shy;ter&shy;est in his school and his ideas in {{w|America|United_States}}; there was an embar&shy;ras&shy;sing pro&shy;ces&shy;sion of over&shy;seas vis&shy;it&shy;ors to Neill{{s}} little school in {{w|Suffolk|Suffolk}}, but how few of the ad&shy;mirers and vis&shy;it&shy;ors set about start&shy;ing more schools on similar lines. A few did: one of the [[Anarchy 43/High School U.S.A.|con&shy;trib&shy;u&shy;tions]] in this issue of {{sc|anarchy}} comes from people who are trying to.
-{{tab}}Why shouldn{{t}} the parents of a group of babies in the same age-<wbr>group get together and plan a school for them well in ad&shy;vance, so as to ac&shy;cum&shy;ul&shy;ate the funds re&shy;quired before they are needed? They could as several groups of parents do, run their own {{w|nurs&shy;ary school|Preschool}} when their chil&shy;dren reach the ap&shy;pro&shy;pri&shy;ate age and then de&shy;velop from the primary stage onward. The wealthy who are also in&shy;tent on edu&shy;ca&shy;ting their chil&shy;dren in in&shy;de&shy;pend&shy;ent schools, have found a vari&shy;ety of ways for fin&shy;ancing them by way of Deeds and Coven&shy;ant, en&shy;dow&shy;ment pol&shy;icies and so on. ({{w|John Vaizey|John_Vaizey,_Baron_Vaizey}} es&shy;tim&shy;ates that at present some&shy;thing like &pound;60 mil&shy;lion a year is spent on school fees and &pound;15-<wbr>&pound;20 mil&shy;lion of this is found by tax-<wbr>avoid&shy;ance).
+{{tab}}Why shouldn{{t}} the parents of a group of babies in the same age-<wbr>group get together and plan a school for them well in ad&shy;vance, so as to ac&shy;cum&shy;ul&shy;ate the funds re&shy;quired before they are needed? They could as several groups of parents do, run their own {{w|nurs&shy;ery school|Preschool}} when their chil&shy;dren reach the ap&shy;pro&shy;pri&shy;ate age and then de&shy;velop from the primary stage onward. The wealthy who are also in&shy;tent on edu&shy;ca&shy;ting their chil&shy;dren in in&shy;de&shy;pend&shy;ent schools, have found a vari&shy;ety of ways for fin&shy;ancing them by way of Deeds and Coven&shy;ant, en&shy;dow&shy;ment pol&shy;icies and so on. ({{w|John Vaizey|John_Vaizey,_Baron_Vaizey}} es&shy;tim&shy;ates that at present some&shy;thing like &pound;60 mil&shy;lion a year is spent on school fees and &pound;15-<wbr>&pound;20 mil&shy;lion of this is found by tax-<wbr>avoid&shy;ance).
 {{tab}}Many of us on the other hand, are more con&shy;cerned with changing the ordin&shy;ary primary and second&shy;ary schools which the vast ma&shy;jor&shy;ity of chil&shy;dren at&shy;tend, changing the teach&shy;ing methods and changing parental and so&shy;cial at&shy;ti&shy;tudes. Some will simply say that this can&shy;not be done{{dash}}this would be the view of the {{w|second&shy;ary modern|Secondary_modern_school}} [[Author:Mister P.|school-<wbr>teacher]] who con&shy;trib&shy;utes an honest [[Anarchy 43/Teacher's dilemma|ac&shy;count]] of his prob&shy;lems else&shy;where in this issue. But others will say that it would be fool&shy;ish not to try to take ad&shy;vant&shy;age of the present wave of in&shy;ter&shy;est in edu&shy;ca&shy;tion and in the state of the schools.
@@ Line 73: / Line 73: @@
 {{tab}}The men&shy;tion of parent-<wbr>teacher as&shy;so&shy;ci&shy;a&shy;tions{{dash|in theory an epitome of the kind of so&shy;cial organ&shy;isa&shy;tion which anarch&shy;ists en&shy;vis&shy;age}}re&shy;minds us of their greater de&shy;velop&shy;ment in America, and the fact that this has not had ex&shy;actly the re&shy;sults that we as anarch&shy;ists would find de&shy;sir&shy;able. In his book ''On Being Human'', writing about the school as {{qq|a most im&shy;port&shy;ant agency in the teach&shy;ing of the art and sci&shy;ence of human rela&shy;tions}}, the an&shy;thro&shy;po&shy;lo&shy;gist and bio&shy;lo&shy;gist {{w|Ashley Montagu|Ashley_Montagu}} de&shy;clares:
-<font size="2"><blockquote>{{tab}}We must shift the em&shy;phasis from the three Rs to the fourth R, human rela&shy;tions, and place it first, fore&shy;most, and always in that order of im&shy;port&shy;ance as the prin&shy;cipal reason for the ex&shy;ist&shy;ence of the school. If must be clearly under&shy;stood, once and for all time, that human rela&shy;tions are the most im&shy;port&shy;ant of all rela&shy;tions. Upon this under&shy;stand&shy;ing must be based all our edu&shy;ca&shy;tional poli&shy;cies &hellip; Our teach&shy;ers must, there&shy;fore, be spe&shy;cially quali&shy;fied to teach human rela&shy;tions &hellip;</blockquote></font>
+<font size="2"><blockquote>{{tab}}We must shift the em&shy;phasis from the three Rs to the fourth R, human rela&shy;tions, and place it first, fore&shy;most, and always in that order of im&shy;port&shy;ance as the prin&shy;cipal reason for the ex&shy;ist&shy;ence of the school. It must be clearly under&shy;stood, once and for all time, that human rela&shy;tions are the most im&shy;port&shy;ant of all rela&shy;tions. Upon this under&shy;stand&shy;ing must be based all our edu&shy;ca&shy;tional poli&shy;cies &hellip; Our teach&shy;ers must, there&shy;fore, be spe&shy;cially quali&shy;fied to teach human rela&shy;tions &hellip;</blockquote></font>
-{{tab}}But the kind of thing that hap&shy;pens when this point of view filters into the school system is dis&shy;cussed by {{w|David Riesman|David_Riesman}} in his {{qq|Thoughts on Teach&shy;ers and Schools}}. The teach&shy;ing func&shy;tion, he ob&shy;serves, {{qq|has been ex&shy;tended to in&shy;clude train&shy;ing in group co-<wbr>opera&shy;tion, manners, the arts, and self-<wbr>under&shy;stand&shy;ing, as well as large residues of the tradi&shy;tional cur&shy;ricu&shy;lum}}. For Human Rela&shy;tions has in fact already become a class&shy;room sub&shy;ject, but some&shy;how not in Montagu{{s}} sense. {{qq|The school is im&shy;plica&shy;ted and em&shy;broiled}}, says Riesman, {{qq|in the changing forms {{p|281}}of America{{s}} pre&shy;oc&shy;cu&shy;pa&shy;tion with suc&shy;cess{{dash}}the patina of suc&shy;cess now being de&shy;fined by such terms as {{qq|group co-<wbr>opera&shy;tion}}, {{qq|self-<wbr>under&shy;stand&shy;ing}}, {{qq|per&shy;sonal ad&shy;just&shy;ment}} and {{qq|get&shy;ting along with people}}. The pro&shy;gres&shy;sive edu&shy;ca&shy;tion move&shy;ment, spread&shy;ing in a dis&shy;torted fashion through the state school systems, has, he feels dove&shy;tailed with the {{qq|mind&shy;less prag&shy;mat&shy;ism and voca&shy;tion&shy;al&shy;ism}} which the schools ab&shy;sorb from their so&shy;cial cur&shy;round&shy;ings, from parents, super&shy;vis&shy;ors, tax&shy;payers and the vari&shy;ety of pres&shy;sure groups, great and small which sur&shy;round the American school boards. Mean&shy;while the teach&shy;ers lead lives of harried des&shy;per&shy;a&shy;tion fight&shy;ing a {{qq|losing battle in de&shy;fence of the tradi&shy;tional intel&shy;lec&shy;tual values}}. And he evolves, on the ana&shy;logy of {{w|Keynes&shy;ian eco&shy;nomics|Keynesian_economics}} a ''counter-<wbr>cyc&shy;lical'' theory of edu&shy;ca&shy;tion. Just as {{w|Keynes|John_Maynard_Keynes}} re&shy;com&shy;mended spend&shy;ing in times of {{w|de&shy;pres&shy;sion|Depression_(economics)}}, so Riesman re&shy;com&shy;mends that {{qq|teach&shy;ers, in se&shy;lect&shy;ing among the ex&shy;pecta&shy;tions held out to them, have some modest op&shy;por&shy;tun&shy;ities to op&shy;pose life in its moment&shy;ary ex&shy;cesses}}. He wants {{qq|to en&shy;courage some of them to give up trying to be psy&shy;chi&shy;at&shy;rists, mothers<!-- 'mothersm' in original --> and moral&shy;ists, to give up making cit&shy;izens, demo&shy;crats, and toler&shy;ant chil&shy;dren. Could they not be per&shy;suaded to con&shy;cen&shy;trate more than many now feel justi&shy;fied in doing, on their roles as teach&shy;ers of spe&shy;cific sub&shy;jects? This is, after all, a job no one else is as&shy;signed or trained to do.}}
+{{tab}}But the kind of thing that hap&shy;pens when this point of view filters into the school system is dis&shy;cussed by {{w|David Riesman|David_Riesman}} in his {{qq|Thoughts on Teach&shy;ers and Schools}}. The teach&shy;ing func&shy;tion, he ob&shy;serves, {{qq|has been ex&shy;tended to in&shy;clude train&shy;ing in group co-<wbr>opera&shy;tion, manners, the arts, and self-<wbr>under&shy;stand&shy;ing, as well as large residues of the tradi&shy;tional cur&shy;ricu&shy;lum}}. For Human Rela&shy;tions has in fact already become a class&shy;room sub&shy;ject, but some&shy;how not in Montagu{{s}} sense. {{qq|The school is im&shy;plica&shy;ted and em&shy;broiled}}, says Riesman, {{qq|in the changing forms {{p|281}}of America{{s}} pre&shy;oc&shy;cu&shy;pa&shy;tion with suc&shy;cess{{dash}}the patina of suc&shy;cess now being de&shy;fined by such terms as {{q|group co-<wbr>opera&shy;tion}}, {{q|self-<wbr>under&shy;stand&shy;ing}}, {{q|per&shy;sonal ad&shy;just&shy;ment}} and {{q|get&shy;ting along with people}}.}}<!-- end quotation omitted in original; all inner quotations double in original --> The pro&shy;gres&shy;sive edu&shy;ca&shy;tion move&shy;ment, spread&shy;ing in a dis&shy;torted fashion through the state school systems, has, he feels, dove&shy;tailed with the {{qq|mind&shy;less prag&shy;mat&shy;ism and voca&shy;tion&shy;al&shy;ism}} which the schools ab&shy;sorb from their so&shy;cial sur&shy;round&shy;ings, from parents, super&shy;vis&shy;ors, tax&shy;payers and the vari&shy;ety of pres&shy;sure groups, great and small which sur&shy;round the American school boards. Mean&shy;while the teach&shy;ers lead lives of harried des&shy;per&shy;a&shy;tion fight&shy;ing a {{qq|losing battle in de&shy;fence of the tradi&shy;tional intel&shy;lec&shy;tual values}}. And he evolves, on the ana&shy;logy of {{w|Keynes&shy;ian eco&shy;nomics|Keynesian_economics}} a ''counter-<wbr>cyc&shy;lical'' theory of edu&shy;ca&shy;tion. Just as {{w|Keynes|John_Maynard_Keynes}} re&shy;com&shy;mended spend&shy;ing in times of {{w|de&shy;pres&shy;sion|Depression_(economics)}}, so Riesman re&shy;com&shy;mends that {{qq|teach&shy;ers, in se&shy;lect&shy;ing among the ex&shy;pecta&shy;tions held out to them, have some modest op&shy;por&shy;tun&shy;ities to op&shy;pose life in its moment&shy;ary ex&shy;cesses}}. He wants {{qq|to en&shy;courage some of them to give up trying to be psy&shy;chi&shy;at&shy;rists, mothers<!-- 'mothersm' in original --> and moral&shy;ists, to give up making cit&shy;izens, demo&shy;crats, and toler&shy;ant chil&shy;dren. Could they not be per&shy;suaded to con&shy;cen&shy;trate more than many now feel justi&shy;fied in doing, on their roles as teach&shy;ers of spe&shy;cific sub&shy;jects? This is, after all, a job no one else is as&shy;signed or trained to do.}}
 {{tab}}Montagu writes that {{qq|A so&shy;ciety such as ours, in which human rela&shy;tions are sub&shy;merged in the eco&shy;nomic system, can rescue itself only by sub&shy;merging its eco&shy;nomy in the matrix of human rela&shy;tions &hellip; And this is the task tat the schools must assist in under&shy;taking, no less that the rescue of man from his de&shy;basing en&shy;slave&shy;ment to the prin&shy;ciples and prac&shy;tices of an aquis&shy;it&shy;ive so&shy;ciety}}. But how does the at&shy;tempt work out? We may gain a clue from the book {{popup|''Crestwood Heights'': ''A North American Suburb''|University of Toronto Press (1956)}} by {{popup|Seeley|John R. Seeley}}, {{popup|Sim|R. Alexander Sim}} and {{popup|Loosley|Elizabeth W. Loosley}}. {{w|Crest&shy;wood Heights|Forest_Hill,_Toronto}}<!-- "Crestwood Heights" is pseudonymous and refers to Toronto's Forest Hill, according to Allan Levine in Toronto: Biography of a City (2014). --> is built around its modern, well-<wbr>equipped and en&shy;light&shy;ened schools. It is par&shy;ticu&shy;larly {{qq|child-<wbr>ori&shy;ented}} and the Crest&shy;wood Heights parents {{qq|ap&shy;pear to have ac&shy;cepted nearly all the values which the human&shy;ists, the liber&shy;als, and the psy&shy;chi&shy;atric&shy;ally ori&shy;ented speak&shy;ers and writers have ad&shy;voc&shy;ated over the last fifty years.}} All the right ad&shy;ject&shy;ives are used. {{qq|In the city}}, writes William J. Newman, {{qq|com&shy;peti&shy;tion is open, ac&shy;know&shy;ledged, and brutal; in the suburb toler&shy;a&shy;tion, per&shy;mis&shy;sive&shy;ness, and in&shy;di&shy;vidual choice are the rule. The child is brought up as an auto&shy;no&shy;mous spon&shy;tan&shy;eous in&shy;di&shy;vidual: thus the open glass school. The suburb will pro&shy;vide the arena in which the family and espe&shy;cially the chil&shy;dren can emerge as {{q|free}} and {{q|re&shy;spons&shy;ible}}, ready to take their place in the world.}} But the well-<wbr>meaning parents of Crest&shy;wood Heights are pur&shy;su&shy;ing for their chil&shy;dren two contra&shy;dict&shy;ory goals, {{qq|suc&shy;cess}} and {{qq|psy&shy;cho&shy;logical matur&shy;ity}}. The authors ob&shy;serve that:

@@ Line 21: / Line 21: @@
 {{tab}}The the&shy;or&shy;et&shy;ical ap&shy;pli&shy;ca&shy;tion of our ideas to the organ&shy;isa&shy;tion of edu&shy;ca&shy;tion is clear enough. The auto&shy;nom&shy;ous self-<wbr>govern&shy;ing school is the aim, and in view of the ob&shy;vi&shy;ous limits within which chil&shy;dren may be said to govern them&shy;selves, this means in prac&shy;tice a school con&shy;trolled by teach&shy;ers by virtue of their func&shy;tional re&shy;spons&shy;ibil&shy;ity to chil&shy;dren, and by parents because of their bio&shy;lo&shy;gical re&shy;spons&shy;ibil&shy;ity for them. But the issue is more com&shy;pli&shy;ca&shy;ted, for in both prim&shy;it&shy;ive and com&shy;plex com&shy;mun&shy;it&shy;ies it is recog&shy;nised that all adults have a re&shy;spons&shy;ibil&shy;ity towards chil&shy;dren, which because of the vagar&shy;ies and vicis&shy;si&shy;tudes of in&shy;di&shy;vidual parent&shy;age, may have to be exer&shy;cised on its behalf or on the child{{s}} behalf. Once that is ad&shy;mit&shy;ted, we have of course ad&shy;mit&shy;ted that edu&shy;ca&shy;tion is the con&shy;cern of the com&shy;mun&shy;ity. But what com&shy;mun&shy;ity? The state as in {{w|France|Education_in_France}}, the local au&shy;thor&shy;ity as in the {{w|United States|Education_in_the_United_States}}, or a mix&shy;ture of the two as in {{w|Britain|Education_in_the_United_Kingdom}}? And where does the re&shy;spons&shy;ibil&shy;ity of the com&shy;mun&shy;ity begin and end?
-{{tab}}Should edu&shy;ca&shy;tion be com&shy;puls&shy;ory anyway? (And is the com&shy;pul&shy;sion to be ap&shy;plied to the child or the parent?) {{w|Bakunin|Mikhail_Bakunin}} saw the ques&shy;tion dia&shy;lect&shy;ic&shy;ally:
+{{tab}}Should edu&shy;ca&shy;tion be com&shy;puls&shy;ory anyway? (And is the com&shy;pul&shy;sion to be ap&shy;plied to the child or to the parent?) {{w|Bakunin|Mikhail_Bakunin}} saw the ques&shy;tion dia&shy;lect&shy;ic&shy;ally:
 <blockquote><font size="2">{{tab}}The prin&shy;ciple of au&shy;thor&shy;ity, in the edu&shy;ca&shy;tion of chil&shy;dren, con&shy;sti&shy;tutes the natural point of de&shy;par&shy;ture; it is leg&shy;itim&shy;ate, neces&shy;sary, when ap&shy;plied to chil&shy;dren of a tender age, whose intel&shy;li&shy;gence has not yet openly de&shy;veloped itself. But as the de&shy;velop&shy;ment of every&shy;thing, and con&shy;sequently of edu&shy;ca&shy;tion, im&shy;plies the gradual nega&shy;tion of the point of de&shy;par&shy;ture, this prin&shy;ciple must dimin&shy;ish as fast as edu&shy;ca&shy;tion and in&shy;struc&shy;tion ad&shy;vance, giving place to in&shy;creas&shy;ing liberty. All ra&shy;tional edu&shy;ca&shy;tion is at bottom nothing but this pro&shy;gres&shy;sive im&shy;mola&shy;tion of au&shy;thor&shy;ity for the benefit of liberty, the final ob&shy;ject of edu&shy;ca&shy;tion neces&shy;sarily {{p|276}}being the form&shy;a&shy;tion of free men full of re&shy;spect and love for the liberty of others. There&shy;fore the first day of the pupil{{s}} life, if the school takes infants scarcely able as yet to stam&shy;mer a few words, should be that of the great&shy;est au&shy;thor&shy;ity and an almost entire ab&shy;sence of liberty; but its last day should be that of the great&shy;est liberty and the ab&shy;solute aboli&shy;tion of every vestige of the animal or divine prin&shy;ciple of au&shy;thor&shy;ity.</font></blockquote>
@@ Line 37: / Line 37: @@
 {{tab}}Histor&shy;ic&shy;ally, in this country, the strug&shy;gle to make edu&shy;ca&shy;tion free, com&shy;puls&shy;ory and uni&shy;versal, and out of the ex&shy;clus&shy;ive con&shy;trol of reli&shy;gious organ&shy;isa&shy;tions, was long and bitter, and the op&shy;po&shy;si&shy;tion to it came, not from liber&shy;tarian ob&shy;jectors, but from the up&shy;hold&shy;ers of priv&shy;ilege and dogma, and from those (both parents and em&shy;ploy&shy;ers) who had an eco&shy;nomic inter&shy;est in the labour of chil&shy;dren or a vested inter&shy;est in ignor&shy;ance. The very reason why it had to be made com&shy;puls&shy;ory ninety-<wbr>four {{p|277}}years ago was because chil&shy;dren were an eco&shy;nomic asset. Read&shy;ers of chap&shy;ters {{l|8|https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch08.htm}} and {{l|12|https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch12.htm}} of {{w|Marx|Karl_Marx}}{{s}} ''{{l|Capital|https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/index.htm}}'' will not dis&shy;sent from the as&shy;ser&shy;tion that the {{w|in&shy;dus&shy;trial re&shy;volu&shy;tion|Industrial_Revolution}} was made by the chil&shy;dren of the poor. As late as 1935 {{w|Lord Halifax|Edward_Wood,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax}}, as {{w|Pres&shy;id&shy;ent of the Board of Edu&shy;ca&shy;tion|Secretary_of_State_for_Education}}, op&shy;pos&shy;ing the pro&shy;posal to raise the school leaving age from four&shy;teen to fif&shy;teen, de&shy;clared that {{qq|public opinion would not toler&shy;ate an un&shy;con&shy;di&shy;tional raising of the age}} and the {{w|Bradford|Bradford}} tex&shy;tile manu&shy;fac&shy;turers as&shy;sured him that {{qq|there was work for little fingers there.}}
-{{tab}}The no&shy;tion that primary ecu&shy;ca&shy;tion should be free, com&shy;puls&shy;ory and uni&shy;versal is very much older than the {{w|English Act of 1870|Elementary_Education_Act_1870}}. It grew up with the print&shy;ing press and the rise of prot&shy;est&shy;ant&shy;ism. The rich had been edu&shy;cated by the {{w|Church|Church_of_England}} and the sons of the rising bour&shy;geoisie in the {{w|grammar schools|Grammar_school#Early_grammar_schools}} of the Middle Ages. From the 16th century on arose a grad&shy;ual demand that all should be taught. {{w|Martin Luther|Martin_Luther}} ap&shy;pealed {{qq|To the Coun&shy;cil&shy;men of all Cities in {{w|Germany|Holy_Roman_Empire}} that they estab&shy;lish and main&shy;tain Christian Schools}}, ob&shy;serv&shy;ing that the train&shy;ing chil&shy;dren get at home {{qq|at&shy;tempts to make up wise through our ex&shy;peri&shy;ence}} a task for which life itself is too short, and which could be ac&shy;cel&shy;er&shy;ated by sys&shy;tema&shy;tic in&shy;struc&shy;tion by means of books. Com&shy;puls&shy;ory uni&shy;versal edu&shy;ca&shy;tion was founded in {{w|Calvin&shy;ist|Calvinism}} {{w|Geneva|History_of_Geneva#Reformation}} in 1536, and {{w|Calvin|John_Calvin}}{{s}} {{w|Scottish|Scotland}} dis&shy;ciple {{w|John Knox|John_Knox}} {{qq|planted a school as well as a {{w|kirk|Church_of_Scotland}} in every parish.}} In {{w|puritan Mas&shy;sachu&shy;setts|Massachusetts_Bay_Colony}} free com&shy;puls&shy;ory primary edu&shy;ca&shy;tion was intro&shy;duced in 1647. The common school, writes {{w|Lewis Mumford|Lewis_Mumford}} in ''{{l|The Condi&shy;tion of Man|https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.188937}}'':
+{{tab}}The no&shy;tion that primary ecu&shy;ca&shy;tion should be free, com&shy;puls&shy;ory and uni&shy;versal is very much older than the {{w|English Act of 1870|Elementary_Education_Act_1870}}. It grew up with the print&shy;ing press and the rise of prot&shy;est&shy;ant&shy;ism. The rich had been edu&shy;cated by the {{w|Church|Church_of_England}} and the sons of the rising bour&shy;geoisie in the {{w|grammar schools|Grammar_school#Early_grammar_schools}} of the Middle Ages. From the 16th century on arose a grad&shy;ual demand that all should be taught. {{w|Martin Luther|Martin_Luther}} ap&shy;pealed {{qq|To the Coun&shy;cil&shy;men of all Cities in {{w|Germany|Holy_Roman_Empire}} that they estab&shy;lish and main&shy;tain Christian Schools}}, ob&shy;serv&shy;ing that the train&shy;ing chil&shy;dren get at home {{qq|at&shy;tempts to make us wise through our ex&shy;peri&shy;ence}} a task for which life itself is too short, and which could be ac&shy;cel&shy;er&shy;ated by sys&shy;tema&shy;tic in&shy;struc&shy;tion by means of books. Com&shy;puls&shy;ory uni&shy;versal edu&shy;ca&shy;tion was founded in {{w|Calvin&shy;ist|Calvinism}} {{w|Geneva|History_of_Geneva#Reformation}} in 1536, and {{w|Calvin|John_Calvin}}{{s}} {{w|Scottish|Scotland}} dis&shy;ciple {{w|John Knox|John_Knox}} {{qq|planted a school as well as a {{w|kirk|Church_of_Scotland}} in every parish.}} In {{w|puritan Mas&shy;sachu&shy;setts|Massachusetts_Bay_Colony}} free com&shy;puls&shy;ory primary edu&shy;ca&shy;tion was intro&shy;duced in 1647. The common school, writes {{w|Lewis Mumford|Lewis_Mumford}} in ''{{l|The Condi&shy;tion of Man|https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.188937}}'':
 <font size="2"><blockquote>{{tab}}&hellip; con&shy;trary to popular belief, is no be&shy;lated pro&shy;duct of 19th century demo&shy;cracy: I have pointed out that it played a neces&shy;sary part in the ab&shy;solu&shy;tist-<wbr>mech&shy;an&shy;ical form&shy;ula. {{w|Friedrich Wilhelm I|Frederick_William_I_of_Prussia}} of {{w|Prussia|Brandenburg-Prussia}}, fol&shy;lowing Luther{{s}} pre&shy;cept, made primary edu&shy;ca&shy;tion com&shy;puls&shy;ory in his realm in 1717, and foun&shy;ded 1,700 schools to meet the needs of the poor. Two ordin&shy;ances of {{w|Louis XIV|Louis_XIV_of_France}} in 1694 and 1698 and one of {{w|Louis XV|Louis_XV_of_France}} in 1724 re&shy;quired regular at&shy;tend&shy;ance at school. Even {{w|England|England}}, a strag&shy;gler in such mat&shy;ters, had hun&shy;dreds of private char&shy;ity schools, some of them foun&shy;ded by the {{w|So&shy;ci&shy;ety for Pro&shy;moting Chris&shy;tian Know&shy;ledge|Society_for_Promoting_Christian_Knowledge}}, which had been in&shy;cor&shy;por&shy;ated in 1699. {{w|Vergerious<!-- as spelt in original -->|Pier_Paolo_Vergerio}}, one of the earliest renais&shy;sance school&shy;masters, had thought edu&shy;ca&shy;tion an es&shy;sen&shy;tial func&shy;tion of the State; and cen&shy;tral&shy;ised au&shy;thor&shy;ity was now be&shy;lat&shy;edly taking up the work that had been neg&shy;lected with the wiping out of mu&shy;ni&shy;cipal free&shy;dom in the greater part of Europe.</blockquote></font>

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   | previous   = [[../Some addresses of organisations mentioned in this issue|Some addresses]]
-  | next       = [[../Anarchy on education]]
+  | next       = [[../Anarchy on education|Anarchy on education]]
   | notes      =
 }}